UKS2 notes for lit rev

 Non disabled children’s understanding of disability changes over time. By the age of 7 most non-disabled children understand the difference between a temporary injury such as a broken arm and a permanent disability (Diamond et al, 1997). They can also provide potential causal explanations for impairments such as blindness or being in a wheelchair (Smith and Williams, 2005). Yet between 12 and 15 years old, pupils already appear to display negative attitudes towards those with disabilities (King, Rosenbaum, Armstrong and Miller, 1989; Moore and Nettlebeck, 2013. These attitudes are attributed to their degree of knowledge, perceptions and assumptions about disability (2,3,7,12,13) in (Lindsay and Edwards, 2013).

These negative perceptions contribute to what drives the moral compass of society and can lead to social exclusion and isolation of those with disabilities (Babik and Gardner, 2021).

In between the ages of 7 - 11 children are at the concrete operational stage of their cognitive development, meaning they can think more widely and decrease their over generalising and categorising of people (Glasser et al, 2014). They are more capable at this age of analysing a situation from multiple perspectives that can help facilitate positive attitudes (Katz and Channeil, 1989; Okagati et al, 1998).

At this age children can engage with moral reasoning when considering factors related to social inclusion (Fisher et al, 1998; McDougall et al, 2004; Glasser et al, 2004; Beaulieu-Bergeron and Morin, 2016; Shaler et al, 2016). Moral reasoning incorporates concepts such as fairness, justice, equality and human rights into human and social evaluation (Killen and Rutland, 2011).

Later in that window, at age 10-11 children are said to better empathise with the impact of disability from a more human perspective (Beckett, 2014).

Between the ages of 6-7 children rely on external instruction to determine in-group and out-group bias. By 10-11 children can trust their own judgment based on information and experiences (Babik and Gardner, 2021).

Empathy and sympathy are critical skills for the learning and development of pro social behaviours and moral reasoning (Diamond, 2001; Eisenburg et al, 2006; Mestre et al, 2019; Portt et al, 2020).

Poor understanding and low empathy is attributed to bullying behaviour in 13-16 year olds (Endresen and Olweus, 2002; Jollifle and Farrington, 2006).

Face to face exposure to peers with disabilities, 7-10 year olds were reported to have more favourable attitudes than 11-16 year olds (Armstrong, 2016).

Similarly 9 year olds showed higher levels of attitudes towards social inclusion than 12 year olds (Gasser et al, 2013).

Taking these studies as examples, and the latter stage of concrete operational stage of cognitive development to maximise the impact of learning. This identifies those between age 9-11 as an ideal time to explore an intervention. This age group equates to year 5 and 6 in schools, otherwise referred to as Upper Key Stage 2.

Previous research suggests that during a child’s development attitudes towards out-groups and individuals with disabilities becomes increasingly negative across a 3-7 year period, but can gradually improve thereafter (Babik and Gardner, 2021).

Disability is a socially constructed concept, therefore the extent of understanding and attitudes towards disability depends on what information and experiences children are exposed to, modelled by others and taught and this can shape and affect their perceptions of disabled people and cultural norms (Babik and Gardner, 2021).

Structured school based interventions can increase knowledge, promote cohesion and help to focus the narrative on similarities rather than difference (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2000; Diamond, 2001; London et al, 2002; Kurtz-Costes et al, 2011; Kang and Irelichtz 2012; Vezzali et al, 2012…).

12 year olds use moral justifications to evaluate exclusion more frequently than 6 year olds (Gasser, Malti and Buholzer, 2014).

With age and advances in the social and cognitive domain children become increasingly more able to coordinate and include different perspectives and multiple points of view in moral conflicts (Smetana, 2006; Gasser, Malti and Buholzer, 2014; Killen and Rutland, 2011) - Richardson , Mulvey and Killen, 2012).

Developing negative attitudes means that 11th graders (age) are more likely than 5th graders (age) to express embarrassment if they had to go swimming with someone in a wheelchair (Crystal, Watanabe and Chen, 1999).

Negative attitudes towards disability stem from a lack of knowledge and this is the premise for developing disability awareness programmes before these negative attitudes develop (Ison et al, 2010).

Ison et al (2010) conducted a study with 9-11 year olds using a programme designed to raise awareness of disability and promote more supportive communities. Example activities included disability simulations, explaining disability types, Q&A sessions with persons with disabilities, demonstrations of different equipment and items used by people with a disability. They used both a questionnaire to measure progress as well as focus groups to get feedback to improve the programme. Both learners and the teachers felt it was extremely worthwhile, informative and invaluable as it really changed pupils perceptions and understanding. Pupils also took the knowledge home to tell siblings and parents and were even able to provide examples of how their behaviour and the terminology they used had changed, as well as feeling more comfortable around people with disabilities.

In childhood when attitudes are just beginning to formulate and develop is the ideal time to implement effective interventions designed to promote equity and justice (Killen, Rutland and Ruck, 2011). These have been found to lead to significantly improved attitudes towards disability (12,19 - in Ison et al, 2010 paper) as well as improve acceptance of peers with disabilities (18).

With disability as a social construct children abstract, interpret, transform and evaluate social events in their world as part of the process of social and cognitive development (Piaget, 1970). Using this information children make their judgments about individuals and choices (Nucci, 2001; Smetana, 2006).

Children’s early social and moral orientations are important foundations for challenging and rejecting discrimination and social exclusion practices (Killen, Rutland and Ruck, 2011).

This early orientation can be channelled to reject stereotypes and biases (Killen, Rutland and Ruck, 2011).

Lewis (1995) emphasised that typical children’s understanding of disability is important for peer acceptance.

Knowledge and awareness of disabilities have been characterised as key features in changing negative peer attitudes towards children with disabilities (Shapiro and Margolis, 1988). 

This learning and understanding plays an important role to underpin subsequent behaviour (Magiati, Dockrell and Logotheti, 2002)

Older children can produce richer and more detailed information and possess a more sophisticated and advanced understanding of disability through both conceptual understanding and different social experiences (Hazzard, 1983; Lewis, 1993).

Between age 8-11 children already possess some different understanding of disability, influenced by their own prior experiences (Magiati, Dockrell and Logotheti, 2002).

Differences between 8-9/9-10 using rating scale survey and interviews:

Age can significantly affect children’s responses. For example none of the younger children could refer to the emotional implications of deafness, whereas over 20% of the older children could discuss the social and emotional impact of physical disabilities and the cognitive implications of having a cognitive disability (Magiati, Dockrell and Logotheti, 2002).

Findings in this study provide evidence of a gradual conceptual change in children’s understanding of disability. 

From age 8 children are developing their understanding, however, the differences suggest the developmental stage from age 9 provides a more solid foundation of understanding to more effectively introduce a disability related intervention.

McDougall et al (2004) study with 14-15 year olds attitudes already tend to be more negative (McDougall, 2000) and there is also evidence that indicates these negative attitudes can manifest in bullying and teasing behaviour in schools (Dawkins, 1995; Fisher, 1999; Llewelyn, 1995; 2000; Zleglar and Rosenstein- Manner, 1991).

Ostrosley and Fowler, 2012 - study in years 4-6 of primary education is a crucial stage to shape attitudes and instill social values. At this educational stage the first notions of justice, empathy and acceptance of difference are being developed (Aguado et al, 2008).

Using a 10 hour programme over 5 sessions a significant improvement was observed in pupils knowledge and understanding of disability.

In Soper paper1:

Lloyd et al study in primary school years 5and 6 used ‘Just like you’ programme that offered substantial improvements related to knowledge and attitudes towards disability, with improvements also sustained at a 3-month follow up.

In Soper paper 2:

Adverse attitudes towards disability can be deeply rooted in societal stigma, misconceptions and overall lack of knowledge and awareness (11,14)

To develop more favourable attitudes school-based interventions can capitalise on the formative development window when attitudes, perceptions and moral beliefs are still taking shape (11,21,22).

Fostering positive attitudes in children towards peers with disabilities is important for both the social and academic success in schools (Leigers and Myers, 2015).

Knowledge and awareness can also combat bullying (Bourke and Bergman, 2010).

Starting awareness sessions in primary education stage gives children the opportunity to cultivate positive values from an early age, preparing them to integrate positively and respectfully into the society of the future (Pan et al, 2023).

Results from studies show a general improvement in attitudes towards disability following an educational intervention (Abeltin et al, 2018a; Abellan et al, 2028b; De Boer et al, 2013; Firat, 2020; Pan et al, 2023; Rillotta and Nettlebeck, 2007).

Students learn to value diversity and can recognise the unique abilities of each individual to reduce stigma and discrimination (Uria- Olaizola et al, 2025).

Lack of knowledge about disability has been suggested as a key determinant in developing adverse attitudes and social exclusion which obstructs people with disabilities overcome the limits and barriers that impact their independency (Rillotta and Nettlebeck, 2001; Lindsey and McPherson, 2012).

School based educational interventions don’t just benefit the pupils, but are also important for teachers and admin staff in developing the professional development, alter negative perceptions and build more positive and inclusive environments for all (Rajpooti, 2019).